Ṛgveda (Rigveda) was the oldest instance of Indian as well as Indo-European population, its language, civilization, culture and literature. It was also the oldest text among the four Vedas. This text was created almost one thousand years before the birth of Christ. Some of the scholars believe that it was written around 1500-1400 BC. Indian philosophers and religious thinkers believe that this text is ‘apouruṣeya’ (‘apourusheya’, which menas that it was not written by a person). They say that the Ṛṣis (Rishis or sages) envisioned the mantras of this texts through their divine eyes, it was not written by anybody. The Parvas or the chapters of Ṛgveda (Rigveda) is divide in two ways- (1) Maṇḍala (Mandala), Anuvāka (Anuvaka), Sūkta (Sukta) and Ṛk (Rik). (2) Aṣtaka (Ashtaka), Adhyāya (Adhyaya), Varga and Mantra.
Each stanza of three-stanzas mantra or four-stanzas mantra is called Ṛk (Rik) or verse. Some of the Ṛks (Riks) are called together as Sūkta (Sukta) [Su = Śobhana (Sobhana or beautiful), Ukta = Vākya (Vakya or sentence), Stuti or Praise. Su+ Ukta = Sūkta]. Sometimes Sūkta (Sukta) represents praise of one single god, sometimes it expresses praise of two or more gods. Anuvāka (Anuvaka) consists of a number of Sūktas (Suktas). A Maṇḍala (Mandala) is made of a number of Anuvākas (Anuvakas). According to the second type, a Varga consists of some of the mantras. An Adhyāya (Adhyaya) is made of a number of the Vargas. And eight distinct chapters together create an Aṣtaka (Ashtaka).
There are ten Maṇḍalas (Mandalas), eighty-five Anuvākas (Anuvakas), one thousand seventeen Sūktas (Suktas) and eleven Vālakhilya Sūktas ( Valakhilya Suktas) in the Ṛgveda (Rigveda). So the total number of Sūktas (Suktas) is one thousand twenty-eight. The number of the mantras in the Ṛgveda (Rigveda) is ten thousand six hundred. According to the second type, these ten thousand six hundred mantras are divided among two thousand six Vargas. These Vargas are again distributed among sixty-four Adhyāyas (Adhyayas). These sixty-four Adhyāyas (Adhyayas) in turn, are equally divided among eight Aṣtakas (Ashtakas).
The first and the tenth Maṇḍalas (Mandalas) of the Ṛgveda (Rigveda) have the most number of Sūktas (Suktas). In the complete Ṛgveda (Rigveda), the lowest number of Ṛk (Rik) is one and the highest number of Ṛk (Rik) is fifty-eight. The total number of words of the Ṛgveda (Rigveda) is four lakh thirty-two thousand. The second to seventh Maṇḍalas (Mandalas) of the Ṛgveda (Rigveda) are together called ‘Goṣthīmaṇḍala’ (Goshthimandala) as the Sūktas (Suktas) of these Maṇḍalas (Mandalas) were written by a certain Ṛṣi (Rishi or sage) or by his family. The second Maṇḍala (Mandala) is known as Gṛtsamada (Gritsamada). In this way the name of the third Maṇḍala (Mandala) is Viśvāmitra (Visvamitra) or Kouśika (Kousika). The fourth Maṇḍala (Mandala) is Vāmadeva (Vamadeva); the fifth Maṇḍala (Mandala) is Atri; the sixth Maṇḍala (Mandala) is Bharadvāja (Bharadvaja), and the seventh Maṇḍala (Mandala) is known as Vaśiṣtha (Vasishtha). The fifty Sūktas (Suktas) of the first and the eighth Maṇḍalas (Mandalas) are written by Maharṣi Kaṇtha (Maharshi Kantha) and his sons and grandsons. The ninth Maṇḍala (Mandala) is known as Soma- pavamāna (Soma-pavamana) as the most of these Sūktas (Suktas) are addressed to Soma. The tenth Maṇḍala (Mandala) is written by many Ṛṣis (Rishis or sages). It has variety of subjects and many scholars think that this Maṇḍala (Mandala) is written later. The famous Puruṣasūkta (Purushasukta) of the Ṛgveda (Rigveda) is found in this tenth Maṇḍala (Mandala). And also the difference among the four Varṇas (Varnas) is first mentioned in this Sūkta (Sukta) [10.90.12]. The name of the river Gaṅgā (Ganga) is not mentioned in the first nine Maṇḍalas (Mandalas), though in the Mantra number [6.45.31] there is a word ‘Gāṅgya’ (Gangya). The name Gaṅgā (Ganga) is first mentioned in the tenth Maṇḍala (Mandala)-
Imaṃ me gaṅge yamune sarasvatī….[10.75.5].
As the name of Gaṅga (Ganga) is mentioned in the tenth Maṇḍala (Mandala), the scholars comment that during the creation of this Maṇḍala (Mandala), Āryans (Aryans) had moved from the Sarasvatī (Sarasvati) river basin to the Gaṅga (Ganga) river basin.
In the Ṛgveda (Rigveda), most of the Sūktas (Suktas) are song of praise to different deities. These Sūktas (Suktas) are written to beseech help from the gods and goddesses like Agni, Indra, Varuṇa (Varuna), Rudra, Āditya (Aditya), Uṣas (Ushas), Aśvinīkumāradvaya (Asvinikumaradvaya) and others These songs of praise addressed to a number of deities seem to indicate the presence of multiple gods in the Ṛgveda (Rigveda). But the inherent strain of Ṛgveda (Rigveda) imply the existence of one god. Even there is a mantra which connotes that the same god is addressed differently as Agni, Varuṇa (Varuna) and Sūrya (Surya). In spite of these different names, one god is implied as follows-
Ekaṃ sad viprā vahudhā vadanti.
The scholars also comment that in the Ṛgveda (Rigveda), there is a tendency when one god is praised, he is endowed with supreme tribute, overwhelming the presence of other deities. This tendency cannot be called as monotheism or politheism. Rather it should be called as henotheism or kathenotheism.
In the Ṛgveda (Rigveda), there are certain ritualistic rules for the mantras of all the Sūktas (Suktas) when they are applied in the yajñas (yajnas).This is called Viniyoga. In the Brāhmaṇa (Brahmana) books, the detailed description is given about the viniyoga of certain mantras which will be applied to definite parts of special yajñas (yajnas). The mantras of the Ṛgveda (Rigveda) has a splendid variety of subjects. The Mantravarṇa (Mantravarna) not only represent eulogizing the deities for personal wish fulfilment, but also how the kings, the population belonging to other social strata, the rivers, the floras are delineated through the Mantras. The Mantras also poignantly narrate how the gambler Kitava suffered after his defeat in the game of dice. In the tenth Maṇḍala (Mandala), the Puruṣasūkta (Purushasukta) first mentions the Four Varṇas (Varnas)- Brāhmaṇa (Brahmana), Rājanya or Kṣatriya (Rajanya or Khastriya), Vaiśya (Vaisya) and Śūdra (Sudra)-
Brāhmaṇo’sya mukhasāsīd vāhūrājanyaḥ kṛtaḥ.
Uru tadasya yad vaiśyāḥ padbhyāṃ śūdro’jāyata. [10.90. 12]
In a number of Sūktās (Suktas) in the tenth Maṇḍala (Mandala), the philosophy is also introduced.
The Ṛk-Sūktās ( Rik-Suktas) written by the women poets have greater social implication. The name of the women poets mentioned in the Ṛgveda (Rigveda) are- Godhā (Godha), Ghoṣa (Ghosha), Viśvavārā (Visvavara), Apālā (Apala), Indrānī (Indrani), Indramātā (Indramata), Saramā (Sarama), Romaśā (Romasa), Urvaśī (Urvasi), Lopāmudrā (Lopamudra), Yamī (Yami), Nārī (Nari), Śaśvatī (Sasvati), Śrī (Sri), Lakṣā (Laksha), Vāk (Vak), Śraddhā (Sraddha), Medhā (Medha), Dakṣiṇā (Dakshina), Rātri (Ratri), Sūryā (Surya), Sāvitrī (Savitri) etc. The names of the Vedic rhymes which are used in the poems of the Ṛgveda (Rigveda) are- Gāyatrī (Gayatri), Uṣṇīk (Ushnik), Anuṣtup (Anushtup), Vṛhatī (Vrihati), Paṅkti (Pankti), Triṣtup (Trishtup), Jagatī (Jagati), Atijagatī (Atijagati), Śakkarī (Sakkari), Atiśakkarī (Atisakkari), Aṣti (Ashti), Atyaṣti (Atyoshti), Dhṛti (Dhriti), Atidhṛti (Atidhriti), Dvipadā Gāyatrī ( Dvipada Gayatri), Dvipadā Virāta ( Dvipada Virata), Dvipadā Triṣtup ( Dvipada Trishtup), Dvipadā Jagatī ( Dvipada Jagati), Ekpadā Virāta ( Ekpada Virata) and Ekpadā Triṣtup ( Ekpada Trishtup). Not only rhymes, but also the rhetorical and poetic quality of the Mantras dedicated specially to Sūrya (Surya), Parjanya, Marut, the god of Lightening called Apāṃ Napāt (Apam Napat) in the Sūktās (Suktas) of the Ṛgveda (Rigveda) are so high that the Indians can boast of this ancient literature written around two thousand five hundred/three thousand B.C.
[The following texts should be read: S. S Bhawe, The Sama Hymns of the Rigveda: A Fresh Interpretation; V.G. Rahurkar, The Seers of Rigveda; H.D. Griswold, The Religion of the Rigveda; M Bloomfield, The Religion of the Vedas; L Renew, The Destiny of the Vedas in India; Sukumari Bhattacharji, Literature in the Vedic Age, Vol. 1, pp. 1-157.]